Islam

"The literal meaning of Islam is peace; surrender of one’s will i.e. losing oneself for the sake of God and surrendering one’s own pleasure for the pleasure of God. The message of Islam was revealed to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings on him) 1, 400 years ago. It was revealed through angel Gabriel (on whom be peace) and was thus preserved in the Holy Quaran. The Holy Quaran carries a Divine guarantee of safeguard from interpolation and it claims that it combines the best features of the earlier scriptures. "(source)

The religion of Islam was founded by Muhammad, who was believed to have been God's chosen prophet (Corrick 88). The Islamic bible is the Quaran, and Muslims must live and abide by the five pillars of Islam. (Book 1)

The first pillar is Shahada. Shahada says that there is no other true god other than Allah and Muhammad Allah's chosen prophet. (source)

The second pillar is Sal at, or prayer. It says that you must confess your sins, this begins with the purification of your body and finishes with the purification of your soul. Sal at is to be done five times a day, with the first prayer staring at dawn and the last at sunset. (source 1, source 2)


The third pillar is Saum, or fasting. Saum is during the month of Ramadan. So, during this month, Muslims must fast to Allah. In doing so, Muslims give up all of their belongings so that they could worship and cocentrate on Allah. (source)

The fourth pillar is Zakat which means alms or giving charity. In this, Muslims must give to the poor so that they could receicve more holiness towards Allah. The last pillar is hajj whic hmeans pilgrimage and in this part the Muslims must make a pilgrimage or journey around Mecca. (source)

The Fall of Rome and a response from Gibbon

"The incapacity of a weak and distracted government may often assume the appearance, and produce the effects, of a treasonable correspondence with the public enemy. If Alaric himself had been introduced into the council of Ravenna, he would probably have advised the same measures which were actually pursued by the ministers of Honorius. 1 The king of the Goths would have conspired, perhaps with some reluctance, to destroy the formidable adversary, by whose arms, in Italy, as well as in Greece, he had been twice overthrown. Their active and interested hatred laboriously accomplished the disgrace and ruin of the great Stilicho. The valor of Sarus, his fame in arms, and his personal, or hereditary, influence over the confederate Barbarians, could recommend him only to the friends of their country, who despised, or detested, the worthless characters of Turpilio, Varanes, and Vigilantius. By the pressing instances of the new favorites, these generals, unworthy as they had shown themselves of the names of soldiers, 2 were promoted to the command of the cavalry, of the infantry, and of the domestic troops. The Gothic prince would have subscribed with pleasure the edict which the fanaticism of Olympius dictated to the simple and devout emperor. Honorius excluded all persons, who were adverse to the Catholic church, from holding any office in the state; obstinately rejected the service of all those who dissented from his religion; and rashly disqualified many of his bravest and most skillful officers, who adhered to the Pagan worship, or who had imbibed the opinions of Arianism. 3 These measures, so advantageous to an enemy, Alaric would have approved, and might perhaps have suggested; but it may seem doubtful, whether the Barbarian would have promoted his interest at the expense of the inhuman and absurd cruelty which was perpetrated by the direction, or at least with the connivance of the Imperial ministers. The foreign auxiliaries, who had been attached to the person of Stilicho, lamented his death; but the desire of revenge was checked by a natural apprehension for the safety of their wives and children; who were detained as hostages in the strong cities of Italy, where they had likewise deposited their most valuable effects. At the same hour, and as if by a common signal, the cities of Italy were polluted by the same horrid scenes of universal massacre and pillage, which involved, in promiscuous destruction, the families and fortunes of the Barbarians. Exasperated by such an injury, which might have awakened the tamest and most servile spirit, they cast a look of indignation and hope towards the camp of Alaric, and unanimously swore to pursue, with just and implacable war, the perfidious nation who had so basely violated the laws of hospitality. By the imprudent conduct of the ministers of Honorius, the republic lost the assistance, and deserved the enmity, of thirty thousand of her bravest soldiers; and the weight of that formidable army, which alone might have determined the event of the war, was transferred from the scale of the Romans into that of the Goths."(source)

There were many reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire. They had very unstable leadership, poor economy, invading armies, etc. They just couldn't handle it so they crumbled under the pressure.(source)

In 190 A.D. the Roman Empire began to fall. It started when different people wanted to rule; nobody really liked the way the Emperor ruled. Some of the people that were in the army even wanted to rule, this caused problems; they were killing and splitting legions apart. Whatever the army did the Emperor had to pay for it, the only problem was that he didn't have any money to for it. The Emperor during this time was Diocletian. In order to get money to pay for the army, he had to become a cruel man financially. He had new coins made and raised the tax. Nothing went well after that. (source 1, source 2)

The Vandals crossed the Danube, and the Rhine River, which were the boundaries for the Roman Empire. They swormed the Romans and made their way down and around the empire. The Vandals took an easy way to the empire, they just went through Germany, down to Spain, through Africa, went around and eventually conquered Rome's Western Empire. Rome's Eastern Empire lasted for about 100 years, until 1453. (source 1, source 2, source 3)



Book 1

Book 2

Roman Roads

"It is often said that 'all roads lead to Rome,' and in fact, they once did. The road system of the Ancient Romans was one of the greatest engineering accomplishments of its time, with over 50,000 miles of paved road radiating from their center at the miliarius aurem in the Forum in the city of Rome. Although the Roman road system was originally built to facilitate the movement of troops throughout the empire, it was inevitably used for other purposes by civilians then and now." (source)

There were many different types of roads, there is a road called an actus and an iter, they were used for travelers on foot. In real life, the roads weren't as popular as many people think because most people wanted to travel by sea. They also formulated a mail delivery system. The Romans always left the door wide open for new innovation ideas, they were willing to listen to any brilliant mind that would make their empire stronger than it already was. (source)

In Rome, there was over 50,000 miles of paved road, it starts in the city and expands out. The Romans made the roads out of paved stone which they layed out in layers. In the middle they were a little bit risen and as they got to the sides, they sloped down so that water could drain down. In our history the Romans were the first to have the concept of the road. The roads were a great way of making trade from across the land; this is because they made it easy for men to roll their carts. The roads were not just in Italy, they spread throughout the entire Ramon Empire. The widespread roads helped greatly not only with the trading of goods but animals as well. The Romans were so powerful that if they wanted something, they got it. (source 1, source 2, source 3)

The Romans were all very creative, they were great at coming up with new ideas. In the making of the roads, they dug trenches, they tightly packed in rocks, pebbles, pieces of jars, but the main ingredient was concrete. They would make their own concrete and lay it down. It worked perfect because the roads are still being used today, even with cars. Though the roads were very efficient, they still took a while to travel on. This is because of the dangers that occured during the night; so to prevent that, the Romans built hotels and motels along the sides of the roads.(source)

Book 1

Book 2

Roman Architecture

Rome is most famous for it's architecture. To their architecture the Romans brought forth many new and different things. Three of those things are the arch, the baked brick, and the use of cement and concrete.(source)

The first Romans to be architectures were priests. They wanted a place to say " Whatever happens here is a sign from the gods". They wanted a place for rituals and the gods. During this part of Rome, they were taught to build with solid and stable materials.(source)

"Ancient Greek architects strove for the precision and excellence of workmanship that are the hallmarks of Greek art in general. The formulas they invented as early as the sixth century B.C. have influenced the architecture of the past two millennia. The two principal orders in Archaic and Classical Greek architecture are the Doric and the Ionic. In the first, the Doric order, the columns are fluted and have no base. The capitals are composed of two parts consisting of a flat slab, the abacus, and a cushion-like slab known as the echinus. On the capital rests the entablature, which is made up of three parts: the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. The architrave is typically undecorated except for a narrow band to which are attached pegs, known as guttae. On the frieze are alternating series of triglyphs (three bars) and metopes, stone slabs frequently decorated with relief sculpture. The pediment, the triangular space enclosed by the gables at either end of the building, was often adorned with sculpture, early on in relief and later in the round. Among the best-preserved examples of Archaic Doric architecture are the temple of Apollo at Corinth, built in the second quarter of the sixth century B.C., and the temple of Aphaia at Aegina, built around 500–480 B.C. To the latter belong at least three different groups of pedimental sculpture exemplary of stylistic development between the end of the sixth century and beginning of the fifth century B.C. in Attica."(source)

In the 5th century A.D. Roman architects were beginning to be influenced by the Etruscans and the Greeks. One of the many features of Roman architecture was their the way they used arches. "Although at first tentatively employed in the spaces between the classical columns, the arch eventually came to be the chief structural element. Flanking columns, usually engaged and superimposed (partly embedded into a wall and laid over it), served merely as buttresses or for decoration."(source1, source2)

In early Rome, one of the main uses for the arch was for aquducts. The arches were made in different sizes so that they could be stacked one on top of the other in rows called arcades. Normally the aquaduct was made with three levels with arcades of different sizes. At the bottom was the larger and wider arches, they were the support. In the middle was the smaller and less wide arches. And at the top was a trough of lead called the sluice. The sluice was a "U" shaped spout that water would flow out of. Do to this, many people in Rome were supplied with crisp cool mountaim water. It is believed that the Roman Empire eventually killed itself do to lead poisoning from the sluices. In places like Spain and France, the Roman aquaducts are still being used today.(source1, source2)

Book 1
Book 2

Life in Rome

In Roman civilization there was no equality. Women were treated as substandard, slave trade was making a come-back, but Rome had become a great civilization. In Roman society, different rules were given to different people.

Only with the permission of their husbands could women do things such as go shopping, go to the baths, and go to things such as festivities. But, they were not allowed to vote unless she was a vestal. She was not allowed to own anything for herself and she had to depend on her father as a wife, and to her husband, a widow.

In Rome it was not considered right to sing and dance, but in Greece it was perfectly fine. In Rome it had been thought that dancing lead to prostitution. However, during the imperial times of Rome, boys and girls were allowed to attend dance classes.

Birth was normally held at home without a doctor. Instead there were female friends and relatives. There could not be any males present during the experience. For the mother, there was a special kind of chair that helped her to sit in a position to give birth in.

In early Rome fathers were the ones that taught their sons to read, write, and use weapons. With their fathers, boys went to religious ceremonies and public functions. When the sons turned 16 they received political teachers. When they turned 17, they spent the year campaigning for the army. In the 3rd century B.C. a new system of education developed in Rome, it was much different than the Greeks system. With his teacher, the young man was taught Greek and Latin literature so that they could develop an effective speaking habit.

To the Romans money was everything. During the Empire, wealth and resources had been unequally divided. In Rome, slaves and their children were considered property of whoever owned them. They were sold and rented and even sometimes exchanged. The way the slave was treated varied. It was rare that a slave was treated poorly because the owner had to keep in mind that if he harmed the slave he would be ruining his investment. Some historians have found out that slaves often worked in chain gangs and were locked up during the night. This mostly occurred in Southern Italy and Sicily. Usually the owners of the slaves would make them wear inscribed metal collars or they would be branded, this was done to lessen the chance of an escape. However, a large sum of slaves worked as teachers, doctors, and architects which helped them earn large quantities of money.

The reign of Caeser Augustus

Augustus was born with the name of Gaius Octavius on September 23, 63 B.C. He was named Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus in 44 B.C. after his great uncle, Julius Caeser, had been murdered. In his will Caesar adopted Octavian which made him his heir.(source)

Gaius was not expected to be the next ruler of Rome. When he became ruler, he was only 18 years old. He didn't look old enoughto be the leader of a country, but he soon proved his importance by soing things to help benefit Rome.(source)

One thing that Caesar did was restore peace in Rome after many years of civil wars. Because of the assination of Caesar's great uncle, Julius Caesar, Rome had been cast into a war. He was killed while Octavian, at the time, was busy in another area. When he got back, he soon found out about his uncle's death and that he was to be the next ruler of Rome. (source1, source2)

In 276 B.C., Caesar Augustus had turned Rome from a Republic to an Empire.During his reign he spent much of Rome's money to turn it into a magnificent city. He is thought to have built the Coliseum. During his time, he built many wonderful things for Rome.(source)

Caesar also built for Rome public baths and aquaducts, which supplied Rome with water. After a little while Caesar made Rome worship him. But, only as a mortal man, not as a man of earth. And finally in 14 A.D., Caesar Augustus died.(source1, source2)

Book 1

Book 2

The Roman Empire

Through the years as Rome rose and fell there were many different rulers to go along with it. During this time, the government had to go through the cities rise of power and decline then eventually the fall.(source)

At the beginning Rome was ruled by kings. The first king of Rome was Romulus, who supposedly founded Rome. In all there were seven kings of Rome. The last one was named Tarquin Superbus. He was also known as Tarquin the Proud. At the end of his reign, he had somehow made the Romans hate the idea of monarchy. So towards the end in 509 B.C. Tarquin and monarchy were brought to an end. After that the Roman republic took over the idea of monarchy.(source, book1)

While under the Roman republic, the Senate and the assembly were able to rule over the Roman citizens. For about five hundred years this republic lasted. Elected to govern Rome were two consuls who were also leaders of the Senate. Since the Roman citizens hated kings, they decided to try out rulers. However, before the second century B.C. the Republic began to have problems with it. The roman land was rapidly growing and they didn’t want it to grow too fast and too chaotically.(source)

Through all of this the generals still had the craving for more power. One general, Julius Caeser, did eventually get to rise to power, but was then assassinated by those he considered to be his friends. After Caeser’s death in 27 B.C., the Roman Empire ended. (source)

The first empire lasted from 14-476 B.C. and it was ruled by more than one hundred emperors. In 364 B.C. the Western Empire emerged do to the split of the Empire. And when the Western Empire split the Eastern Empire started, but then soon after the Eastern Empire the Roman Empire ended. (book2, source)

Through the years many leaders had risen and fallen long with Rome. First Rome was ruled by kings then it was ruled by the Republic after that it was ruled by emperors. Rome had finally fallen after end of the eastern empire.





Book 1-Zoch Paul A.Ancient Rome: An Introduction History. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman. 1998

Book 2- Keaveney, Arthur. Sulla, the Last Republican. 2005. Routledge. New York and London.