Louis XIV

"Louis XIV's parents, King Louis XIII and his wife Anne of Austria, hated each other. Their marriage remained unconsummated for at least 4 years; it was 23 years before their first child, Louis, was born in 1638. Apparently encouraged by this success, the royal couple produced another son, Phillipe, in 1640."(source)

"Louis XIV, France's Sun King, had the longest reign in European history (1643-1715). During this time he brought absolute monarchy to its height, established a glittering court at Versailles, and fought most of the other European countries in four wars. The early part of his reign (1643-61), while Louis was young, was dominated by the chief minister Cardinal Mazarin. In the middle period (1661-85) Louis reigned personally and informatively, but the last years of his personal rule (1685-1715) were beset by problems."(source)

"When Louis XIV came to the throne as a five-year-old boy (actually four years, eight months) on 14 May 1643, the Thirty Years' War was still in progress, and Cardinal Richelieu, the French éminent grise, had died the preceding year. The situation did not look good for France, but the young boy became one of the world's great monarchs and the embodiment of the divine-right, absolute monarch ('L'état, c'est moi'). Louis (5 September 1638-1 September 1715) ruled France for seventy-two years, one of the longest reigns in recorded history, and dominated European cultural and political affairs."(source)

"Louis, who adopted the sun as his symbol to become the ‘Sun King’, displayed the splendour of his reign by constructing his opulent and vast palace at Versailles. There his dazzling court strutted and bickered, while Louis reserved real authority for himself. Louis is reputed to have claimed ‘I am the state’, and although this statement may be apocryphal, his will was, indeed, the will of the state in matters of military matters and foreign policy."(source)

"Louis XIV ruled France for more than half a century and is typically remembered for his absolutism, his patronage of the arts and his lavish lifestyle - culminating in the building of Versailles. This original and lively biography focuses on Louis' personal life while keeping the needs of the history student at the forefront, featuring analysis of Louis' wider significance in history and the surrounding historiography. An analytical account of Louis' life, this study proposes that the Sun King's reign and legacy cannot be fully understood without a detailed investigation of Louis' private life and personality, including his upbringing and his many lovers. Louis' relations with his closest family set the tone for the treatment of his French subjects and for his foreign policy towards the rest of Europe."(source)

Louis XIV was a brilliant monarch and the only reason for why his kingdom maintained so well was because thrrough out his entire reign he never doutbed himself or his right to be king. Louis was indeed a great king, and though many people many rulers after him tried to his triumph, they were all unsuccessful.(source)

"Far more harmful were Louis' wars. He fought many, and before his death he realized that they had cost too much in money, in blood, and in reforms postponed. He was further saddened by the death of his son and heir and two grandsons. His throne was to pass to his great-grandson, and in 1715 the dying monarch called this sickly led to him and said, 'My child, you will soon be the king of great realm. Never forget your obligations towards God; remember that you owe him all that you are. Try to preserve peace with your neighbors. i have been too fond of war. Do not imitate me in that, nor in the too great expenditures I have made. Lighten the burdens of your people as soon as you can, and do that which I have had the misfortune not to accomplish myself.' A few days later, Louis XIV, the Grand Monarch, died after a reign of seventy-two years. He, Richelieu, and Mazarin had broken the power of Spain. They had expanded France a long way towards its present boundaries, but they had bankrupted their people. They had created an absolute monarchy, but they had failed to make the type of reforms necessary to ensure loyalty to the crown."(source)

Book 1
Book 2

The Reformation

The Reformation took place because of Martin Luther's reaction to the indulgences. Indulgences caused many of the people in Germany to fall away from the Catholic Church and its teachings. Outraged, Martin Luther taught people to go against indulgences; eventually he made the 95 thesis and posted them on the door of the Catholic Church. (Koenigsberg 65)

Indulgences were used to raise money for the re-building of St.Peter's Church. The idea behind these indulgences was good, they were used to raise money, but what they actually stood for was not so great. They stood for the idea that all you had to get you or a loved on into heaven was get a little piece of paper and pray up a bunch of steps. That was not what Martin Luther believed however, and he made it known. He believed that to get to heaven you must first be saved and know the Lord Jesus Christ as your Lord and Savior.(source)

While being a monk as well as a professor at Wittenberg University in Germany, Martin Luther taught about how much he disagreed with indulgences and the they served. Luther was very firm in believing that the only way you can get to heaven is through Jesus Christ. In response to the indulgenses Luther wrote the 95 thesis and nailed them to the door of the church.(Graham-Dixon 206)

The 95 Thesis.(source)

"On Oct. 31, 1517, Martin Luther mailed the 95 Theses to local bishops that they might take action against indulgences. According to Luther's co-worker, Philipp Melanchthon, Luther also posted the Theses to the Castle church door on this same day, though that is the only source that we have that mentions it. It was customary to post public notices on the Castle church door."(source)

"After 1507, trade in Indulgences took a steep climb because both the Papal Court and Bishop Albrecht von Brandenburg Germany's representative for the sale of indulgence were in great financial trouble. In addition, the Dominican monk, Johann Tetzel, sold indulgences in the region around Wittenberg in a very ostentatious manner. Many stories started poping up about him such as, that Tetzel could redeem the sins of the deceased.Further sayings of Tetzel, such as, 'When the money clangs in the box, the souls spring up to heaven', also brought protests from Luther"(source)

"During the later centuries of the protestant reformation the church has been receiving layer after layer of restoration of the power and reality of God. The magnificent manifestations of the power of God in the first century church and in the Celtic church in the centuries before the reformation were lost and did not returned to the church in the early centuries of reformation.
The new revolution now coming forth is not a return to the pre reformation religion and not even a return to the first century church but does have some restored characteristics of the early church. Some of the supernatural miracles and spiritual manifestations of the first century church as well as the Celtic church of the pre reformation period are being restored. The mostly lukewarm powerless church that developed after the protestant reformation has in the past century received significant restoration of the gifts of God in portions of the church."(source)

Book 1- Koenigsberger, H.G., Early Modern Europe 1500-1789, Longman Inc., 1987, New York.
Book 2- Graham-Dixon, Andrew, Renaissance, BBC Worldwide, 1999, London.

The Black Death

"Dead littered the streets everywhere. Cattle and livestock roamed the country unattended. Brother deserted brother. The Black Death was one of the worst natural disasters in history. In 1347 A.D., a great plague swept over Europe, ravaged cities causing widespread hysteria and death. One third of the population of Europe died. 'The impact upon the future of England was greater than upon any other European country.' (Cartwright, 1991) The primary culprits in transmitting this disease were oriental rat fleas carried on the back of black rats."(source)

"The plague presented itself in three interrelated forms. The bubonic variant (the most common) derives its name from the swellings or buboes that appeared on a victim's neck, armpits or groin. These tumors could range in size from that of an egg to that of an apple. Although some survived The Plague's Progress the painful ordeal, the manifestation of these lesions usually signaled the victim had a life expectancy of up to a week. Infected fleas that attached themselves to rats and then to humans spread this bubonic type of the plague. A second variation - pneumonia plague - attacked the respiratory system and was spread by merely breathing the exhaled air of a victim. It was much more virulent than its bubonic cousin - life expectancy was measured in one or two days. Finally, the septicemic version of the disease attacked the blood system." (source)

The Black Death killed more people than any other disease not because it was more deadly than any other but because of the conditions that Europe was in at the time and because of the way it attacked and caught on to people. Whenever one person would get it, they had no way of knowing or gettting rid of it; then once they had it, before they knew it their friends and family had it.(source)

Some of the medical measures of The Plague were "when the government acts to prevent or control a calamity, but the calamity persists, people turn to other cures. Many believed that the disease was transmitted upon the air, probably because the smell from the dead and dying was so awful. So, the living turned to scents to ward off the deadly vapors.People burned all manner of incense: juniper, laurel, pine, beech, lemon leaves, rosemary, camphor, sulpher and others. Handkerchiefs were dipped in aromatic oils, to cover the face when going out.The cure of sound was another remedy. Towns rang church bells to drive the plague away, for the ringing of town bells was done in crises of all kinds. Other towns fired cannons, which were new and which made comfortingly loud din.And there was no end of talismans, charms and spells that could be purchased from the local wise woman or apothecary. People were desperate for a cure and would try anything, no matter how outlandish or strange."(source)

"Scientists and historians are still unsure about the origins of plague. Medieval European writers believed that it began in China, which they considered to be a land of almost magical happenings. Chroniclers wrote that it began with earthquakes, fire falling from the sky, and plagues of vermin. Like medieval travel literature, these accounts are based on a number of myths about life in areas outside of Europe. It now seems most probable that infected rodents migrated from the Middle East into southern Russia, the region between the Black and Caspian seas. Plague was then spread west along trade routes. There were epidemics among the Tartars in southern Russia in 1346. Plague was passed from them to colonies of Italians living in towns along the Black Sea. Merchants probably carried the disease from there to Alexandria in Egypt in 1347; it then moved to Damascus and Libya in 1348, and Upper Egypt in 1349. Venetian and Genoese sailors are known to have brought the plague to Europe. Plague moved quickly along the major trade routes. From Pisa, where it had arrived early in 1348, it traveled to Florence and then on to Rome and Bologna; from Venice it moved into southern Germany and Austria; and from Genoa it crossed the Tyrhennian Sea to Barcelona in Spain and Marseilles in France. It continued through the towns of southern France, reaching Paris by early June 1348. From there the contagion spread to England by late June 1348 and the Low Countries by the summer of 1349."(source)

When someone caught the plague the symtoms "started with a headache. Then chills and fever, which left him exhausted and prostrate. Maybe he experienced nausea, vomiting, back pain, soreness in his arms and legs. Perhaps bright light was too bright to stand.Within a day or two, the swellings appeared. They were hard, painful, burning lumps on his neck, under his arms, on his inner thighs. Soon they turned black, split open, and began to ooze pus and blood. They may have grown to the size of an orange.Maybe he recovered. It was possible to recover. But more than likely, death would come quickly. Yet... perhaps not quickly enough. Because after the lumps appeared he would start to bleed internally. There would be blood in his urine, blood in his stool, and blood puddling under his skin, resulting in black boils and spots all over his body. Everything that came out of his body smelled utterly revolting. He would suffer great pain before he breathed his last. And he would die barely a week after he first contracted the disease.The swellings, called buboes, were the victim's lymph nodes, and they gave the Bubonic Plague its name. But the bubonic form of the disease was only one manifestation of the horrible pandemic that swept Europe in the 1340s. Another form was Pneumonic Plague. The victims of Pneumonic Plague had no buboes, but they suffered severe chest pains, sweated heavily, and coughed up blood. Virtually no one survived the pneumonic form.The third manifestation was Septicemic Plague. This sickness would befall when the contagion poisoned the victim's bloodstream. Victims of Septicemic Plague died the most swiftly, often before any notable symptoms had a chance to develop. Another form, Enteric Plague, attacked the victim's digestive system, but it too killed the patient too swiftly for diagnosis of any kind." (source)

"In Medieval England, the Black Death was to kill 1.5 million people out of an estimated total of 4 million people between 1348 and 1350. No medical knowledge existed in Medieval England to cope with the disease. After 1350, it was to strike England another six times by the end of the century. Understandably, peasants were terrified at the news that the Black Death might be approaching their village or town."(source)

Book 1- Frederick F. Cartwright, DISEASE AND HISTORY, Dorset Press, New York, 1991, p. 142
Book 2

The Tudor Dynasty

"The Tudor dynasty ruled England from 1485 to 1603. Their story encompasses some of the most dramatic and unforgettable events in European history. And they remain the most famous and controversial of royal families. " (source)


"Elizabeth Tudor was born September 7, 1533 at Greenwich Palace. She was the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth was the literal daughter of the Reformation. It was for the hope of her—or rather the hope of a male heir––that Henry VIII left his 24-year marriage to Catherine of Aragon for her lady in waiting, Anne Boleyn. To do so, Henry had broke with the Church of Rome, and established the Church of England, naming himself as Supreme Head of the church. Doing so didn’t win him any friends in the European community. England was isolated and vulnerable. But his single focus was to continue the Tudor dynasty. Daughters wouldn’t help him; sons would." (source)



"Anne did eventually conceive a son, but he was stillborn. By that point, Henry had begun to grow tired of Anne and began to orchestrate her downfall. Most, if not all, historians agree that Henry's charges of incest and adultery against Anne were false, but they were all he needed to sign her execution warrant. She was beheaded on the Tower Green on May 19, 1536, before Elizabeth was even three years old." (source)



Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn, was an extreme dissappointment to her father. Henry VIII desired a son who would be the rightful heir to the throne. He had divorced his first wife for a number of reasons, one of which was the fact that she had birthed him only a daughter, Mary. In 1536, Elizabeth's mother was executed for adultery and her inability to produce a male offspring. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, and she was deposed from her place in the line of succession. After the death of her mother, Elizabeth grew in an unstable environment. Her father continually remarried. Some wives were divorced, many died, due to childbirth or execution. However, Henry VIII finally obtained his long-awaited son, Edward VI. Edward died after the Wyatt rebellion, and Elizabeth's half sister became Queen Mary I. Mary had Elizabeth imprisoned after faulty accusations made Elizabeth supposed of treason. However, in 1559, the "other" sister finally emerged from the shadows of her older siblings and took the throne. Elizabeth never married, nor did she produce an heir. When she died in 1603, England was at the peak of its prosperity and power. (Abbott 154)


"Elizabeth learned valuable lessons from her sister's reign. The choice of a husband for a reigning queen would be an issue of great moment, for in a male-dominated world her husband would become an important figure. To marry an alien ruler such as Philip II would put England under foreign domination and embroil the country in continental squabbles. To marry one of her own subjects would ally her too closely with one English faction or another. Elizabeth also saw that an heir would become the rallying point for any of several large groups of discontented subjects. She therefore kept open her options about marriage and an heir until the end of her reign. " (source)

"Elizabeth’s religious views affected the way she handled many things throughout her reign. Instead of naming herself 'Supreme Head of the Church' as her father had done, Elizabeth took the title 'Supreme Governor'. The main reason for this is most likely because many people felt that a woman should not be head of the Church. In fact, many people felt that a woman should not rule the country alone. However, it is said from very early on, Elizabeth knew she would never marry. There were a few times she came close to marriage, but for political and religious reasons, she never went through with it. The major problem that came from Elizabeth never marrying was that she was without an heir. Even after nearly dying from smallpox in 1562, she would not name a successor." (source)

Book 1-Abbott, Jacob. Queen Elizabeth. 1917. Brunswick Subscription Company. New York
Book 2-Neillands, Robin. The Wars of the Roses. 2006. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. Greenwich, Greater London.

The failures of the crusades

"The term crusades can be used to refer to any military operations launched during the middle ages by the Catholic Church and Catholic political leaders against non-Catholic powers or heretical movements. Most crusades, however, were directed at Muslim states in the Middle East, with the first starting in 1096 and the last in 1270. The term itself is derived from the Latin cruciata, which means 'cross-marked,' i.e. cruce signati, those who wear the insignia of scarlet crosses." (source)

"The crusades, as you well know, ended up in abject failure, a decisive defeat in karney Hittim 1187. the only crusade the West has enbarked on since 1972 when 11 Jewish athletes were murdered in Munchen is the crusade to minimise the strength of the jewish nation, and to augment the demands of the Islamists to abolish the Jewish nation." (source)

"The First Crusade had succeeded in achieving its objectives and it bad been possible to found Latin states in the East largely because the Moslems had been divided against one another and had thus been almost completely unable to cooperate effectively to stave off their Western foes. The end of the Second Crusade saw the Moslems preparing to unite, for the first time, against the Latin intruders in their midst, while the Latins, for their part, were divided sharply against one another. " (source)

"At the height of the fighting, the citizens, amazed at the number and the valour of our army, began to lose faith in their own power to resist. They barricaded with huge beams all the suburbs of the city in the area where our men were encamped, their only hope being that while the Christians were engaged in breaking down these barriers, they themselves would be able to flee with their wives and children through the opposite area of the city. It seemed reasonable to suppose that the Christian people would soon hold the city, had divine favour been with us. But He who is terrible in his plans for the sons of men had decided otherwise. For while the citizens had packed their bags and decided to leave the place, they began to presume on our cupidity and came up with the intention of storming with money the souls of those whose bodies they could not overcome by fighting. They used various arguments, even bringing a countless quantity of money, to persuade some of our leaders to play the part of the traitor Judas." (source)

"The Crusades had far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts, some of which have lasted into contemporary times. Because of internal conflicts among Christian kingdoms and political powers, some of the crusade expeditions were diverted from their original aim, such as the Fourth Crusade, which resulted in the sack of Christian Constantinople and the partition of the Byzantine Empire between Venice and the Crusaders. The Sixth Crusade was the first crusade to set sail without the official blessing of the Pope. The Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Crusades resulted in Mamluk and Hafsid victories, as the Ninth Crusade marked the end of the Crusades in the Middle East." (source)

"Richard Lion Heart is often depicted as the iconic representative of the Medieval Crusade, the Crusaders themselves, and of Chivalry, and not without some good cause. But many who portray Richard in heroic ways also portray the Crusades themselves in an overly positive light." (source)

"The crusading movement came to an end by the close of the thirteenth century. The emperor Frederick II for a short time recovered Jerusalem by a treaty, but in 1244 A.D. the Holy City became again a possession of the Moslems. They have never since relinquished it. Acre, the last Christian post in Syria, fell in 1291 A.D., and with this event the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem ceased to exist. The Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John, still kept possession of the important islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, which long served as a barrier to Moslem expansion over the Mediterranean." (source)

Eleanor of Aquitaine

Eleanor of Aquitaine was born 1122 in Bordeaux, France. She died, however, in 1204 at the age of 82. One of the things that she was so well known for was being the tough queen that lead England an France during the Medeival Ages.(source)

"Eleanor of Aquitaine was one of the most powerful and fascinating personalities of feudal Europe. At age 15 she married Louis VII, King of France, bringing into the union her vast possessions from the River Loire to the Pyrenees. Only a few years later, at age 19, she knelt in the cathedral of Vézelay before the celebrated Abbé Bernard of Clairvaux offering him thousands of her vassals for the Second Crusade. It was said that Queen Eleanor appeared at Vézelay dressed like an Amazon galloping through the crowds on a white horse, urging them to join the crusades."(source)

"From 1147 to 1149 Eleanor accompanied Louis on the Second Crusade to protect the fragile Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, founded after the First Crusade only 50 years before, from Turkish assault. Eleanor's conduct during this expedition, especially at the court of her uncle Raymond of Poitiers at Antioch, aroused Louis's jealousy and marked the beginning of their estrangement. After their return to France and a short-lived reconciliation, their marriage was annulled in March 1152. According to feudal customs, Eleanor then regained possession of Aquitaine, and two months later she married the grandson of Henry I of England, Henry Plantagenet, count of Anjou and duke of Normandy. In 1154 he became, as Henry II, king of England, with the result that England, Normandy, and the west of France were united under his rule. Eleanor had only two daughters by Louis VII; to her new husband she bore five sons and three daughters. The sons were William, who died at the age of three; Henry; Richard, the Lion-Heart; Geoffrey, duke of Brittany; and John, surnamed Lackland until, having outlived all his brothers, he inherited, in 1199, the crown of England. The daughters were Matilda, who married Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria; Eleanor, who married Alfonso VIII, king of Castile; and Joan, who married successively William II, king of Sicily, and Raymond VI, count of Toulouse. Eleanor would well have deserved to be named the 'grandmother of Europe.'"(source)

"During their adventures on the Second Crusade, it became apparent that her marriage with dour, severe King Louis VII of France was ill matched. The marriage was annulled on a technicality, and Eleanor left her two daughters by him to be raised in the French court. Within a short time Eleanor threw herself into a new marriage, a stormy one to Henry of Anjou, an up and coming prince eleven years younger than she. Their temperaments as well as their wealth in land were well matched; her new husband became Henry II king of England in 1154."(source)

"Eleanor had no intention of sitting quietly at home while her husband went off on his adventure. The king's may have been opposed to taking Eleanor and her company of 300women along on the Crusade, but Eleanor was also offering the services of a thousand men from Aquitaine, and the king accepted. When they reached Antioch they were greeted by Eleanor's uncle. Raymond of Poitiers, who had become rulerof the city by marrying its young princess. Raymond entertained the crusaders in grand style, paying special attention to his flirtatious niece."(source)

"Eleanor of Aquitaine and Henry II had three daughters and five sons. Both sons who survived Henry became kings of England after him: Richard I (the Lionhearted) and John (known as Lackland). In 1173, Henry's sons rebelled against Henry, and Eleanor of Aquitaine supported her sons. Legend says that she did this in part as revenge for Henry's adultery. Henry put down the rebellion and confined Eleanor from 1173 to 1183.From 1185, Eleanor became more active in the ruling of Aquitaine. Henry II died in 1189 and Richard, thought to be Eleanor's favorite among her sons, became king. From 1189-1204 Eleanor of Aquitaine also was active as a ruler in Poitou and Glascony. At the age of almost 70, Eleanor traveled over the Pyrenees to escort Berengaria of Navarre to Cyprus to be married to Richard."(source)

"In 1169, Eleanor became the Duchess of Aquitaine and restored Aquitaine's order. In 1170, she reconciled her relationship with her first-born daughter Marie. When Henry and Eleanor's sons revolted against Henry in 1173, Eleanor backed them fully, and all of them were imprisoned by Henry until the year of his death, 1189. Her son, Richard I (also known as Richard the Lionhearted) became king and followed much of Eleanor's advice while ruling. Eleanor retired in Aquitaine and stayed in the abbey of Fontevraud. She died there in 1204, at 82 years old, very old for her time."(source)

Book 1
Book 2

St. Patrick's Day

"St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, is one of Christianity's most widely known figures. But for all his celebrity, his life remains somewhat of a mystery. Many of the stories traditionally associated with St. Patrick, including the famous account of his banishing all the snakes from Ireland, are false, the products of hundreds of years of exaggerated storytelling."(source)

"March 17 was not the day St. Patrick was born but the day he died. Even though we don't know the date of his birth, most scholars believe the year was 385 AD and the year of his death was 461 AD. St. Patrick was born in Wales, studied religion to become a priest and then went to Ireland to teach the people about God. There are many wonderful stories about St. Patrick, some true and some not true. The most famous legend is that he drove the snakes out of Ireland. This did not happen but the Irish will tell you that you cannot find a snake throughout the whole country of Ireland." (source)

"Patrick was the son of Calpurnius, a Roman-British army officer.He was growing up as naturally as other kids in Britain. However, one day a band of pirates landed in south Wales and kidnapped this boy along with many others. Then they sold him into slavery in Ireland.The was there for 6 years, mostly imprisoned.This was when changes came to him. He dreamed of having seen God.Legend says, he was then dictated by God to escape with a getaway ship." (source)

"The conversion of Ireland has, as we have seen, its modest place among those manifold changes by which a new Europe was being formed in the fifth century. The beginnings of the work had been noiseless and dateless, due to the play of accident and obscure zeal of nameless pioneers; but it was organised and established, so that it could never be undone, mainly by the efforts of one man, a Roman citizen of Britain, who devoted his life to the task." (source)

"Patrick isn't really a Saint with a capital S, having never been officially canonized by Rome. And Patrick couldn't have driven the snakes out of Ireland because there were never any snakes there to begin with. He wasn't even the first evangelist to Ireland (Palladius had been sent in 431, about five years before Patrick went). Patrick isn't even Irish. He's from what's now Dumbarton, Scotland (just northwest of Glasgow).
Patrick was 16 years old in about the year 405, when he was captured in a raid and became a slave in what was still radically pagan Ireland. Far from home, he clung to the religion he had ignored as a teenager. Even though his grandfather had been a priest, and his father a town councilor, Patrick "knew not the true God." But forced to tend his master's sheep in Ireland, he spent his six years of bondage mainly in prayer. He escaped at the suggestion of a dream and returned home.
Patrick was in his mid-40s when he returned to Ireland. Palladius had not been very successful in his mission, and the returning former slave replaced him. Intimately familiar with the Irish clan system (his former master, Milchu, had been a chieftain), Patrick's strategy was to convert chiefs first, who would then convert their clans through their influence. Reportedly, Milchu was one of his earliest converts." (source)

"The folk of Ireland used to worship 'si-de' (spirits). They did not believe the true Godhead of the true Trinity. But when St. Patrick was finished, all Ireland believed in the Holy Trinity, believed in Jesus Christ, did not follow nature spirits, and the court at Tara was replaced by the court of Christ at Armagh. In the Confessio, St. Patrick said that he was God's debtor for the great grace of baptism given to so many thousands, for the people reborn in God and then confirmed, and clerics ordained for them everywhere. 'Not wishing to bore his readers,' St. Patrick gives only a small mention of persecution even unto bonds, twelve dangers to his life, and numerous plots against him. For example, St. Odran, a charioteer for St. Patrick (commemorated February 9th) was warned of danger and pretended weariness, so St. Patrick took the reigns, and Odran in the place of honor was killed with a lance meant for St. Patrick.

When St. Patrick became ill, he decided to go to Armagh. He was met by an angel, who took him to see Victor, and Victor, speaking to him out of rushing fire, said, 'Primacy to Armagh; to Christ render thanks. Unto heaven thou shalt go soon. Thy prayers have been granted: the hymn thou hast chosen in thy lifetime shall be a protecting corslet to all. Those men of Ireland that are with thee on the day of doom shall go to judgment.'" (source)

"Saint Patrick's Day has come to be associated with everything Irish: anything green and gold, shamrocks and luck. Most importantly, to those who celebrate its intended meaning, St. Patrick's Day is a traditional day for spiritual renewal and offering prayers for missionaries worldwide. So, why is it celebrated on March 17th? One theory is that that is the day that St. Patrick died. Since the holiday began in Ireland, it is believed that as the Irish spread out around the world, they took with them their history and celebrations. The biggest observance of all is, of course, in Ireland. With the exception of restaurants and pubs, almost all businesses close on March 17th. Being a religious holiday as well, many Irish attend mass, where March 17th is the traditional day for offering prayers for missionaries worldwide before the serious celebrating begins.In American cities with a large Irish population, St. Patrick's Day is a very big deal. Big cities and small towns alike celebrate with parades, "wearing of the green," music and songs, Irish food and drink, and activities for kids such as crafts, coloring and games. Some communities even go so far as to dye rivers or streams green!" (source)

Book 1

Book 2

William The Conqueror

William was born in Normandy in 1028 to Robert, Duke of Normandy, and Herleva, who was the daughter of a wealthy merchant from Elaise. William was born before his parents had gotten married so he was refered to as an illegitimate son; though he was the only son of Robert. (source)

"Duke Robert died in 1035 and William became Duke of Normandy at the age of just seven years old. William's mother later married the Viscount of Conteville and produced a half-sister to William called Muriel and two half-brothers - Robert and Odo (Odo later became the Bishop of Bayeux who commissioned the famous Bayeux tapestry). In 1052 William married Matilda of Flanders." (source)

"From 1047 onwards, William successfully dealt with rebellion inside Normandy involving his kinsmen and threats from neighbouring nobles, including attempted invasions by his former ally King Henry I of France in 1054 (the French forces were defeated at the Battle of Mortemer) and 1057. William's military successes and reputation helped him to negotiate his marriage to Mathilda, daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. At the time of his invasion of England, William was a very experienced and ruthless military commander, ruler and administrator who had unified Normandy and inspired fear and respect outside his duchy." (source)

On September 28th, William and his fleet landed near Prevency, which was in Kent. On October 14th Harold and his men marched from York to Kent so that they could battle with William. This was known as the Battle of Hastings. In the battle, Harold had been killed and the Saxons had retreated. The English council elected a man named Edgar Athelton to be Harold's successor but he ended up giving the throne to William. With all this power, William decided to forbid pillaging and he made a promise to the people that he would keep ransoms low. He also pardoned all of the Saxon's that did not fight for Harold. (source 1, source 2)

"There were several revolts in the next five years, which William used as an excuse to confiscate English land and declare it his personal property. He then distributed the land to his Norman followers, who imposed their unique feudal system. Eventually, Normans replaced the entire Anglo-Saxon aristocracy. William, however, retained most of England’s institutions and was intensely interested in learning about his new property. He ordered a detailed consensus to be made of the population and property of England—which was compiled in The Domesday Book (now an invaluable source of historical information and still in the Public Record Office in London)." (source)

"The twenty-four months that elapsed between the autumn of 1085 and William's death in September 1087 saw the revival of a hostile confederation against the Anglo-Norman kingdom in a form reminiscent of earlier decades. They witnessed the continuation of William's previous defence of that kingdom, though this time by exceptional means. And they witnessed, also, the Conqueror's greatest administrative acheivement. these months were all spent by him either in active preparation for war, but they also included the taking of the Domesday survey which was the most noteworthy illistration of what his government involved. Nor can these events be dissociated from each other. Throughout his life, war and struggle for survival had formed the background, and the essential condition, of his constructive acts. They continued to do so until death". (source)

Book 1
Book 2

The reign of Charlamagne

"He was born in eastern Frank land, in the district that is called Moingewi, and it was the monastery of Fulda, in the school of Saint Boniface the Martyr, that his boyhood received its first training." (source)

Charlemagne was born April 2, 742 in Northern Europe, he was the oldest child of Pippin III and Bertrada of Laon. Throughout his education he read little, if any, books; though the few that he did read were extremely intellectual. Even though he read little, he had the ability to speak old Teutonic and literary; he could also understand Greek. (source)

In 768 Charlemagne and his younger brother, Carloman, bequeathed the entire Frankish Kingdom. Though, in 771 when Carloman died, Charlemagne became the head ruler of the kingdom. During that time though, the Franks had begun to fall into barbarianism due to their neglect of religion and education. (source)

Once Charlemagne was head of government, he decided to expand his territory. In getting more land, he overthrew northern Italy, Bavaria, Spain, and Hungary. Though he had garnered up an empire, he did not give himself the title of emperor; instead, he referred to himself as the King of the Franks and the Lombard's. (source)

"An affecionate man, Charlemagne got along very well with his sister, Gisela, and their mother, Bertrada, treating both with great respect. Gisela was a nun, so she live in a convent, but Bertrada lived with Charlemagne. It was Bertrada who arranged for Charlemagne t omarry a daughter of King Desiderius of the Lombards ( a Germanic tribe whose kingdom was in Italy). But it seems this wife was not to Charlemagnes liking, because he soon ended the marriage and took a new wife named Hildegarde, with whom he had six children, according to Einhard. In 783, Charlemagne was twice bereaved when both Hildegarde and Bertrada died. Before long he found a new wife, Fastrada." (source)

"Charles has become known as Charles The Great or Charlemagne for very good reasons. His long reign changed the face of Europe politically and culturally, and he himself would remain fixed in the minds of people in the Middle Ages as the ideal king. In more recent times, many historians have taken his reign to be the beginning of the Middle Ages 'proper'. Yet in terms of territorial expansion and consolidation, of church reform and entanglement with Rome, Charlemagne's reign was merely bringing the policies of his father Pippin to their logical conclusions." (source)

"In 806, at the age of sixty-four, Charlemagne took measures to provide for the succession of his empire. He divided the realm among his three sons—Charles, Pepin, and Louis. But the death of Charles in April 810 was soon followed by that of Pepin. The remaining son, Louis, later called 'the Pious,' the least warlike and aggressive of the three, was left as the sole heir to the empire. He was crowned by his father in 813. The last years of Charlemagne's reign saw difficult times. Civil disorder increased as did disease and famine (drastic food shortages). Additionally, there were troubles on the frontiers. In many respects, the future looked dark. In 811 Charlemagne made his final will, giving a more sizable portion of his treasures to various churches of the realm than to his own heirs. He died on January 28, 814, and was buried at his palace at Aachen." (source)


Book 1
Book 2

Justinian I

"Justinian I (Flavius Anicius Justinianus), the nephew of Justin I, was born at Tauresium in Illyria, the son of a Slavonic peasant, and was originally called Sabbatius. Educated at Constantinople, in 521 Justinian was named consul and in 527 was proclaimed by Justin his colleague in the empire. Justin died the same year and Justinian, who was then proclaimed sole emperor, was crowned along with his wife, Theodora." (source)

When Justinian became ruler of the Byzantine Empire, he ordered to have the preparation of the Corpus Juris Civilis. "These works have become known individually as the Code, which collected the legal pronouncements of the Roman emperors, the Institutes, an elementary student's textbook, and the Digest, by far the largest and most highly prized of the three compilations. The Digest was assembled by a team of sixteen academic lawyers commissioned by Justinian in 533 to cull everything of value from earlier Roman law. It was for centuries the focal point of legal education in the West and remains today an unprecedented collection of the commentaries of Roman jurists on the civil law." (source)

"Justinian reigned at Constantinople from 527 until his death. He recognized that Roman law was in a state of confusion—the no-actresses-for-senators law was a minor problem compared with the obfuscations and contradictions among old laws passed in the republic and early empire, subsequent decrees of the senate, and the writings of jurists who had been given the right to declare what was the law. Justinian therefore commissioned a group of distinguished scholars to come up with an imperial constitution free of contradictions. Following the success of this, he authorized a new commission to bring order into the rest of Roman law, publishing their results in 533. The president of the commission, Tribonian, recognized that an outline of the laws was required whereby future lawyers could learn their first lessons, no longer from ancient fables but from the new vantage point of codified legal learning. The result was the Institutes of Justinan, extracts from which follow. This summary of Roman law in the sixth century provides an insight into the type of humanistic principles that had established themselves in Roman society at this late period of the empire." (source)

"Justinian was anxious to end religious disunity within the empire. The chief theological issue of his day was the persisting Monophysite rejection of the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451) regarding the natures of Christ. Since the Monophysite religious dissent was linked with regional unrest, especially in Syria-Palestine and Egypt, the problem had wide political implications. Justinian repeatedly sought to end the dissension, either by some compromise formula or device or by arbitrary pressures. His policies alternated between extremes of conciliation and persecution. At Justinian's behest, the Fifth Ecumenical Council met (553) to ratify some of his measures. Yet, for all his exertions, a resolution of the issues seemed even less attainable at the end of his reign than at the beginning." (source)

"Although ecstatic and hopeful early in his reign, the mood at Constantinople had changed by the end of Justinian’s life to one of angry frustration. Justinian’s funeral pall was embroidered with scenes of his military triumphs in the 530s that must have seemed a grim anachronism to the mourners who laid him to rest." (source)

Two main foundational myths for Ancient Rome

The first myth is about Aeneas. Aeneas was the son of Venus and Anchises. He was raised nt nymphs, and he was taught by a centaur. When he got older, he fought in trhe Trojan War along with the Dardanians, they were allies of Troy. When the city was sacked and burned by the Greeks, Aeneas and his father fled. He sailed away with a group of Trojan soldiers; he was now searching for a new home. It has been said that the gods told Aenes to build his city at the place where his soldiers ate their plates. Though, after deing taunted by the wing god, his ship ended up landing in Carthage, Africa. While staying there, Aeneas fell in love with a woman named Dido who was the Queen of Carthage. (source 1, source 2)

"Aeneas was born from the union of a mortal, Anchises 1, and a goddess, Aphrodite. Some say that it was Zeus himself who aroused in Aphrodite the desire to be joined with a mortal man, so to prevent her to say mockingly that she had joined all the gods with mortals. Aphrodite came to Anchises 1 in the form of a beautiful maiden, saying she was a mortal woman and the daughter of one Otreus. She explained to the incredulous Anchises 1 that she talked his language because she had been brought up by a Trojan nurse. Anchises 1 was taken by desire, but after they had made love, Aphrodite revealed her true identity and Anchises 1 feared the gods would destroy him for having slept with a goddess. But Aphrodite, who herself grieved for having laid in the bed of a mortal man, assured him that he was dear to the gods and nothing would happen to him, provided he would say their child was the offspring of a nymph, for Aphrodite disposed that the NYMPHS would rear Aeneas and that, as soon as he was a boy, he would be restored to his father."

The other myth is that "Romulus and Remus were twin brothers. Their father was Mars, the God of War, their mother was Rhea Silvia, a vestal virgin and daughter of the King, Numitor. Numitor's brother, Amulius, had taken the throne from him and had forced Rhea Silvia to become a vestal virgin so that she would not have any children who might try to take back the throne.
When the boys were born, Amulius seized them, put them into a basket and threw them into the river Tiber. He hoped that they would drown. However, the boys were rescued by a she-wolf who fed the babies with her own milk and cared for them.
They grew up and were found by the shepherd Faustulus, who took them home and looked after them until they were grown up.
The two young men discovered who they really were and decided to kill Amulius and Put their grandfather back on the throne. After doing this they decided to build a city of their own but could not agree where to build it. Remus favoured the Aventine Hill but Romulus wanted to use the Palatine Hill. They could not reach an agreement and so each began to build his own city enclosed with walls.
One day, Remus visited Romulus and made fun of his wall by jumping over it and saying how easily it could be breached. Romulus was so annoyed that he killed Remus and said the he would kill anyone who mocked his city or tried to break through the walls of Rome.
The legend says that Romulus became the first King of Rome in 753BC and populated his new city with runaway slaves and convicted criminals. He stole women from the Sabine tribe to provide wives for the slaves and criminals and to populate his new city.
The Sabine tribe were not happy about this and declared war on Rome. The war went on for many years but eventually the Sabine tribe and Romulus reached an agreement and the Sabines became a part of Rome under the Kingship of Romulus.
The legend ends by telling how Romulus was carried up to the heavens by his father, Mars, and was worshipped as the God Quirinus." (source)

Book 1

The Sunni & Shia

"The Shiites (a name derived from the Arabic shiat Ali, "the party of Ali") constitute one of the two major branches of Islam, the other, larger branch being the Sunnites. Following the death of Muhammad, disagreement arose as to the necessary qualifications and exact function of his successors as leaders (Imams) of the Muslim community. The Shiites are those who insisted that only members of the Prophet's clan, specifically, the descendants of Muhammad's daughter Fatima and her husband Ali, could qualify. Although Ali became (655) the fourth caliph, he was murdered in 661, and the majority recognized the Umayyad Muawiya I as caliph. The Shiites, however, supported the claims of Ali's sons: Hasan, who died mysteriously c. 669, and Husein, who was killed by Umayyad troops at Kerbala in 680 (Kerbala, in Iraq, became the major pilgrimage center for the Shiites)." (source)

In 632 A.D., after the death of Muhammad, this whole ordeal started to take place. A position became open after his death, it was to rule and catty out the Muslim nation and faith, so it came down to two people; Abu Bakr and Ali. Abu Bakr was Muhammad's father-in-law and friend while Ali was his cousin and con-in law. When the decision was made, Abu Bakr ended up becoming the new Caliphate. Though, he died soon after in 634 A.D. After many Caliphs had come and gone, Ali finally made it. But he wasn't accepted by Muhammad's former wife, Aisha, who was Abu Bakr's daughter. She thought of him to poor in justice, so both Aisha and Ali fought forces at Camel that same year. After Aisha's forces were stopped, she apologized and let Ali rule in peace. Only a few years later Ali was killed by some of his own while on his way seek a compromise with an enemy. ( source 1, source 2)

The reason for the Sunni and Shiite's split is not because of religious differences but because of political ones. The Sunni wanted Abu Bakr to rule and the Shiites wanted Ali to rule. It was a true dispute because the Shia wanted someone of actual blood lineage to rule, though they didn't get the higher vote they still ended up with their ruler in the end. Ali was Muhammad's cousin, Abu Bakr was related through marriage. Today there is still a dispute between the two nations, but it is due to Uthman, a member of the wealthy Ummayad clan. He was also a former Sunni Caliphate that was killed. I can see why they are upset, over and over they continue to kill each other over something that took place a thousand years ago. (source 1, source 2, source 3)

Technically speaking the Sunni and Shia believe in the same thing; they both believe that the Quran is the Holy Book and they follow the Five Pillars of Islam. However, the Shiites are much more dramatic in prayer when it comes to martyrs. They also pray three times a day rather than five. On the topic of Sunni religious leaders, theyin Aisha and Abu Bakr, ect., to have an impact on the Islamic religion, and the Shia's want in accepting them as "ideal members of the faith." (source)

Book 1
Book 2

Islam

"The literal meaning of Islam is peace; surrender of one’s will i.e. losing oneself for the sake of God and surrendering one’s own pleasure for the pleasure of God. The message of Islam was revealed to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings on him) 1, 400 years ago. It was revealed through angel Gabriel (on whom be peace) and was thus preserved in the Holy Quaran. The Holy Quaran carries a Divine guarantee of safeguard from interpolation and it claims that it combines the best features of the earlier scriptures. "(source)

The religion of Islam was founded by Muhammad, who was believed to have been God's chosen prophet (Corrick 88). The Islamic bible is the Quaran, and Muslims must live and abide by the five pillars of Islam. (Book 1)

The first pillar is Shahada. Shahada says that there is no other true god other than Allah and Muhammad Allah's chosen prophet. (source)

The second pillar is Sal at, or prayer. It says that you must confess your sins, this begins with the purification of your body and finishes with the purification of your soul. Sal at is to be done five times a day, with the first prayer staring at dawn and the last at sunset. (source 1, source 2)


The third pillar is Saum, or fasting. Saum is during the month of Ramadan. So, during this month, Muslims must fast to Allah. In doing so, Muslims give up all of their belongings so that they could worship and cocentrate on Allah. (source)

The fourth pillar is Zakat which means alms or giving charity. In this, Muslims must give to the poor so that they could receicve more holiness towards Allah. The last pillar is hajj whic hmeans pilgrimage and in this part the Muslims must make a pilgrimage or journey around Mecca. (source)

The Fall of Rome and a response from Gibbon

"The incapacity of a weak and distracted government may often assume the appearance, and produce the effects, of a treasonable correspondence with the public enemy. If Alaric himself had been introduced into the council of Ravenna, he would probably have advised the same measures which were actually pursued by the ministers of Honorius. 1 The king of the Goths would have conspired, perhaps with some reluctance, to destroy the formidable adversary, by whose arms, in Italy, as well as in Greece, he had been twice overthrown. Their active and interested hatred laboriously accomplished the disgrace and ruin of the great Stilicho. The valor of Sarus, his fame in arms, and his personal, or hereditary, influence over the confederate Barbarians, could recommend him only to the friends of their country, who despised, or detested, the worthless characters of Turpilio, Varanes, and Vigilantius. By the pressing instances of the new favorites, these generals, unworthy as they had shown themselves of the names of soldiers, 2 were promoted to the command of the cavalry, of the infantry, and of the domestic troops. The Gothic prince would have subscribed with pleasure the edict which the fanaticism of Olympius dictated to the simple and devout emperor. Honorius excluded all persons, who were adverse to the Catholic church, from holding any office in the state; obstinately rejected the service of all those who dissented from his religion; and rashly disqualified many of his bravest and most skillful officers, who adhered to the Pagan worship, or who had imbibed the opinions of Arianism. 3 These measures, so advantageous to an enemy, Alaric would have approved, and might perhaps have suggested; but it may seem doubtful, whether the Barbarian would have promoted his interest at the expense of the inhuman and absurd cruelty which was perpetrated by the direction, or at least with the connivance of the Imperial ministers. The foreign auxiliaries, who had been attached to the person of Stilicho, lamented his death; but the desire of revenge was checked by a natural apprehension for the safety of their wives and children; who were detained as hostages in the strong cities of Italy, where they had likewise deposited their most valuable effects. At the same hour, and as if by a common signal, the cities of Italy were polluted by the same horrid scenes of universal massacre and pillage, which involved, in promiscuous destruction, the families and fortunes of the Barbarians. Exasperated by such an injury, which might have awakened the tamest and most servile spirit, they cast a look of indignation and hope towards the camp of Alaric, and unanimously swore to pursue, with just and implacable war, the perfidious nation who had so basely violated the laws of hospitality. By the imprudent conduct of the ministers of Honorius, the republic lost the assistance, and deserved the enmity, of thirty thousand of her bravest soldiers; and the weight of that formidable army, which alone might have determined the event of the war, was transferred from the scale of the Romans into that of the Goths."(source)

There were many reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire. They had very unstable leadership, poor economy, invading armies, etc. They just couldn't handle it so they crumbled under the pressure.(source)

In 190 A.D. the Roman Empire began to fall. It started when different people wanted to rule; nobody really liked the way the Emperor ruled. Some of the people that were in the army even wanted to rule, this caused problems; they were killing and splitting legions apart. Whatever the army did the Emperor had to pay for it, the only problem was that he didn't have any money to for it. The Emperor during this time was Diocletian. In order to get money to pay for the army, he had to become a cruel man financially. He had new coins made and raised the tax. Nothing went well after that. (source 1, source 2)

The Vandals crossed the Danube, and the Rhine River, which were the boundaries for the Roman Empire. They swormed the Romans and made their way down and around the empire. The Vandals took an easy way to the empire, they just went through Germany, down to Spain, through Africa, went around and eventually conquered Rome's Western Empire. Rome's Eastern Empire lasted for about 100 years, until 1453. (source 1, source 2, source 3)



Book 1

Book 2

Roman Roads

"It is often said that 'all roads lead to Rome,' and in fact, they once did. The road system of the Ancient Romans was one of the greatest engineering accomplishments of its time, with over 50,000 miles of paved road radiating from their center at the miliarius aurem in the Forum in the city of Rome. Although the Roman road system was originally built to facilitate the movement of troops throughout the empire, it was inevitably used for other purposes by civilians then and now." (source)

There were many different types of roads, there is a road called an actus and an iter, they were used for travelers on foot. In real life, the roads weren't as popular as many people think because most people wanted to travel by sea. They also formulated a mail delivery system. The Romans always left the door wide open for new innovation ideas, they were willing to listen to any brilliant mind that would make their empire stronger than it already was. (source)

In Rome, there was over 50,000 miles of paved road, it starts in the city and expands out. The Romans made the roads out of paved stone which they layed out in layers. In the middle they were a little bit risen and as they got to the sides, they sloped down so that water could drain down. In our history the Romans were the first to have the concept of the road. The roads were a great way of making trade from across the land; this is because they made it easy for men to roll their carts. The roads were not just in Italy, they spread throughout the entire Ramon Empire. The widespread roads helped greatly not only with the trading of goods but animals as well. The Romans were so powerful that if they wanted something, they got it. (source 1, source 2, source 3)

The Romans were all very creative, they were great at coming up with new ideas. In the making of the roads, they dug trenches, they tightly packed in rocks, pebbles, pieces of jars, but the main ingredient was concrete. They would make their own concrete and lay it down. It worked perfect because the roads are still being used today, even with cars. Though the roads were very efficient, they still took a while to travel on. This is because of the dangers that occured during the night; so to prevent that, the Romans built hotels and motels along the sides of the roads.(source)

Book 1

Book 2

Roman Architecture

Rome is most famous for it's architecture. To their architecture the Romans brought forth many new and different things. Three of those things are the arch, the baked brick, and the use of cement and concrete.(source)

The first Romans to be architectures were priests. They wanted a place to say " Whatever happens here is a sign from the gods". They wanted a place for rituals and the gods. During this part of Rome, they were taught to build with solid and stable materials.(source)

"Ancient Greek architects strove for the precision and excellence of workmanship that are the hallmarks of Greek art in general. The formulas they invented as early as the sixth century B.C. have influenced the architecture of the past two millennia. The two principal orders in Archaic and Classical Greek architecture are the Doric and the Ionic. In the first, the Doric order, the columns are fluted and have no base. The capitals are composed of two parts consisting of a flat slab, the abacus, and a cushion-like slab known as the echinus. On the capital rests the entablature, which is made up of three parts: the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. The architrave is typically undecorated except for a narrow band to which are attached pegs, known as guttae. On the frieze are alternating series of triglyphs (three bars) and metopes, stone slabs frequently decorated with relief sculpture. The pediment, the triangular space enclosed by the gables at either end of the building, was often adorned with sculpture, early on in relief and later in the round. Among the best-preserved examples of Archaic Doric architecture are the temple of Apollo at Corinth, built in the second quarter of the sixth century B.C., and the temple of Aphaia at Aegina, built around 500–480 B.C. To the latter belong at least three different groups of pedimental sculpture exemplary of stylistic development between the end of the sixth century and beginning of the fifth century B.C. in Attica."(source)

In the 5th century A.D. Roman architects were beginning to be influenced by the Etruscans and the Greeks. One of the many features of Roman architecture was their the way they used arches. "Although at first tentatively employed in the spaces between the classical columns, the arch eventually came to be the chief structural element. Flanking columns, usually engaged and superimposed (partly embedded into a wall and laid over it), served merely as buttresses or for decoration."(source1, source2)

In early Rome, one of the main uses for the arch was for aquducts. The arches were made in different sizes so that they could be stacked one on top of the other in rows called arcades. Normally the aquaduct was made with three levels with arcades of different sizes. At the bottom was the larger and wider arches, they were the support. In the middle was the smaller and less wide arches. And at the top was a trough of lead called the sluice. The sluice was a "U" shaped spout that water would flow out of. Do to this, many people in Rome were supplied with crisp cool mountaim water. It is believed that the Roman Empire eventually killed itself do to lead poisoning from the sluices. In places like Spain and France, the Roman aquaducts are still being used today.(source1, source2)

Book 1
Book 2

Life in Rome

In Roman civilization there was no equality. Women were treated as substandard, slave trade was making a come-back, but Rome had become a great civilization. In Roman society, different rules were given to different people.

Only with the permission of their husbands could women do things such as go shopping, go to the baths, and go to things such as festivities. But, they were not allowed to vote unless she was a vestal. She was not allowed to own anything for herself and she had to depend on her father as a wife, and to her husband, a widow.

In Rome it was not considered right to sing and dance, but in Greece it was perfectly fine. In Rome it had been thought that dancing lead to prostitution. However, during the imperial times of Rome, boys and girls were allowed to attend dance classes.

Birth was normally held at home without a doctor. Instead there were female friends and relatives. There could not be any males present during the experience. For the mother, there was a special kind of chair that helped her to sit in a position to give birth in.

In early Rome fathers were the ones that taught their sons to read, write, and use weapons. With their fathers, boys went to religious ceremonies and public functions. When the sons turned 16 they received political teachers. When they turned 17, they spent the year campaigning for the army. In the 3rd century B.C. a new system of education developed in Rome, it was much different than the Greeks system. With his teacher, the young man was taught Greek and Latin literature so that they could develop an effective speaking habit.

To the Romans money was everything. During the Empire, wealth and resources had been unequally divided. In Rome, slaves and their children were considered property of whoever owned them. They were sold and rented and even sometimes exchanged. The way the slave was treated varied. It was rare that a slave was treated poorly because the owner had to keep in mind that if he harmed the slave he would be ruining his investment. Some historians have found out that slaves often worked in chain gangs and were locked up during the night. This mostly occurred in Southern Italy and Sicily. Usually the owners of the slaves would make them wear inscribed metal collars or they would be branded, this was done to lessen the chance of an escape. However, a large sum of slaves worked as teachers, doctors, and architects which helped them earn large quantities of money.

The reign of Caeser Augustus

Augustus was born with the name of Gaius Octavius on September 23, 63 B.C. He was named Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus in 44 B.C. after his great uncle, Julius Caeser, had been murdered. In his will Caesar adopted Octavian which made him his heir.(source)

Gaius was not expected to be the next ruler of Rome. When he became ruler, he was only 18 years old. He didn't look old enoughto be the leader of a country, but he soon proved his importance by soing things to help benefit Rome.(source)

One thing that Caesar did was restore peace in Rome after many years of civil wars. Because of the assination of Caesar's great uncle, Julius Caesar, Rome had been cast into a war. He was killed while Octavian, at the time, was busy in another area. When he got back, he soon found out about his uncle's death and that he was to be the next ruler of Rome. (source1, source2)

In 276 B.C., Caesar Augustus had turned Rome from a Republic to an Empire.During his reign he spent much of Rome's money to turn it into a magnificent city. He is thought to have built the Coliseum. During his time, he built many wonderful things for Rome.(source)

Caesar also built for Rome public baths and aquaducts, which supplied Rome with water. After a little while Caesar made Rome worship him. But, only as a mortal man, not as a man of earth. And finally in 14 A.D., Caesar Augustus died.(source1, source2)

Book 1

Book 2