Panama Canal

"The history of the Panama Canal goes back to 16th century. After realizing the riches of Peru, Ecuador, and Asia, and counting the time it took the gold to reach the ports of Spain, it was suggested c.1524 to Charles V, that by cutting out a piece of land somewhere in Panama, the trips would be made shorter and the risk of taking the treasures through the isthmus would justify such an enterprise. A survey of the isthmus was ordered and subsequently a working plan for a canal was drawn up in 1529. The wars in Europe and the thirsts for the control of kingdoms in the Mediterranean Sea simply put the project on permanent hold."(source)

"From 1819, Panama was part of the federation and country of Colombia but when Colombia rejected United States plans to build a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, the U.S. supported a revolution that led to the independence of Panama in 1903."(source)

"Groundbreaking on the Panama Canal began in 1881 and was not completed until 1914. The French government was in charge of building the canal until it abandoned it in 1889. The United States took over control of construction at that point and oversaw its completion."(source)

"The actual building of the Panama Canal which, unknown to many, was carried out in two phases, brought in a whole new series of factors in calculating the cost of building an engineering marvel of the kind that was inaugurated in 1914 in the tiny republic of Panama. The first building phase known as the French Period lasted ten years from 1881-1889. It, as well as the American Period, 1904-1914, will be remembered for its audacity but, more than for its boldness and engineering innovation, it will recall the enormous price paid in human life."(source)

"Ever since the Spaniards landed in the Isthmus of Panama for the first time in 1501, Panama has been a natural transit route for merchandise and people attempting to cross from one ocean to the other.As early as the 1520’s the Spanish Crown explored the possibility of constructing a Canal through the Isthmus, but the idea was later abandoned. In the 19th Century, the United States also saw the opportunity of joining the two oceans, but they had a railroad in mind instead of a Canal.In 1832, Congress sent Col. Charles Biddle to Panama to negotiate a concession for the construction of a railroad. He also inspected the country for the best route. Biddle died shortly afterward, but interest in the project continued. In 1848 a charter was granted to the Pacific Mail Steamship Company to deliver mail between the U.S. and Panama. The incorporators were William H. Aspinwall, his uncle, Gardiner Green Howland, Henry Chauncey, and Edwin Bartlett. Three wooden paddle-wheel steamships were built; the California, the Oregon and the Panama. They would deliver mail between New York, Panama and San Francisco, but the discovery of gold in California in January 1848 took Aspinwall’s attention away from mail delivery".(source)


"The people of Panama had joined their neighbor, Colombia, in a nation known as greater Colombia. In the 1840's, they had fought to win their Independence, but lost. So it was Colombia, not Panama, that controlled the area when a group of Frenchmen decided they wanted to build a canal."(source)

The end of the Panama Canal construction book source.

Book 1
Book 2

Theodore Roosevelt

"I don't pity any man who does hard work worth doing. I admire him. I pity the creature who does not work, at whichever end of the social scale he may regard himself as being."-Theodore Roosevelt

"Theodore Roosevelt is one of the few Presidents whose life, or at least the public image of his life, is even more important historically than his accomplishments as our chief executive officer."(source)


"Theodore Roosevelt (October 27, 1858–January 6, 1919) was born in New York into one of the old Dutch families which had settled in America in the seventeenth century. At eighteen he entered Harvard College and spent four years there, dividing his time between books and sport and excelling at both. After leaving Harvard he studied in Germany for almost a year and then immediately entered politics. He was elected to the Assembly of New York State, holding office for three years and distinguishing himself as an ardent reformer."(source)

"Roosevelt's engaging personality enhanced his popularity. Aided by scores of photographers, cartoonists, and portrait artists, his features became symbols of national recognition; mail addressed only with drawings of teeth and spectacles arrived at the White House without delay. TR continued to be newsworthy in retirement, especially during the historic Bull Moose campaign of 1912, while pursuing an elusive third presidential term. He remains relevant today. This exhibition is a retrospective look at the man and his portraiture, whose progressive ideas about social justice, representative democracy, and America's role as a world leader have significantly shaped our national character."(source)

"All of his childhood life, young Theodore was frequently stricken with severe asthma. Interestingly, and unnoticed by the family and apparently Theodore himself, the illness often struck on Sundays. Theodore would spend the night fighting to breathe or would often be taken into the country for fresh air. It is now believed that the illness was psychosomatic, something not understood at the time. As time went on, he suffered less and less from this ailment, suffering very few attacks by the time he was in college."(source)

"Despite his death at age sixty, Theodore Roosevelt's legacy lives on. His moral integrity and strength of character are models which should be emulated by everyone around the world. Theodore Roosevelt was not only one of the finest presidents the United States has ever elected; Theodore Roosevelt was also a faithful husband, a model parent, an enthusiastic citizen who sought to accomplish something great for his country and the world at large. TR was a prolific writer and tireless campaigner for the protection of basic human rights, a masterful politician who shaped the world around him, always basing his actions on the American concepts of freedom, equal justice under the law, and the pursuit of happiness."(source)

Book 1

Book 2

Spanish American War

"In the summer of 1898, the United States fought Spain in one of the shortest and most pathetically one-sided wars in modern history. The war represented a powerful resurgence of the same doctrine of Manifest Destiny that had led the United States to expand westward by defeating Mexico in 1846-48. This impulse toward imperialism took place as major European nations were establishing colonies throughout Africa. As a result of the Spanish-American War, the United States became a world power that controlled an empire stretching from the Caribbean Sea to the Far East."(source)

"The war originated in the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain, which began in February 1895. Spain’s brutally repressive measures to halt the rebellion were graphically portrayed for the U.S. public by several sensational newspapers, and American sympathy for the rebels rose. The growing popular demand for U.S. intervention became an insistent chorus after the unexplained sinking in Havana harbour of the battleship USS Maine (Feb. 15, 1898; see Maine, destruction of the), which had been sent to protect U.S. citizens and property after anti-Spanish rioting in Havana. Spain announced an armistice on April 9 and speeded up its new program to grant Cuba limited powers of self-government, but the U.S. Congress soon afterward issued resolutions that declared Cuba’s right to independence, demanded the withdrawal of Spain’s armed forces from the island, and authorized the President’s use of force to secure that withdrawal while renouncing any U.S. design for annexing Cuba."(source)

"The Spanish-American War (1898) was fought over the liberation of Cuba from Spain. During the 1870s the Cuban people rebelled against Spanish rule. The Spanish subdued the rebellion, but peace on the Caribbean island could not be maintained. Worsening economic conditions resulted in a revolution in 1895. American leaders feared that the insurrection (rebellion) would neither end in victory for the Cubans nor would the Spanish be strong enough to put down the rebel forces. Meanwhile, the American public had been reading a steady stream of newspaper stories from the island and were increasingly supporting U.S. intervention."(source)


"The Spanish American War lasted from late April (the date varies a few days as to when the 'official' beginning occurred - April 22, 23, or 25) to December 10, 1898 when it ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris between the U.S. and Spain. It only lasted eight months. The Spanish American War was a global war, being fought physically in the Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In addition, it was fought politically in the home countries as well as in diverse places such as Egypt and Hawaii. Particularly important also is that the war was fought between the U.S. and Spain. This may sound obvious, but is a point of confusion. Lastly, the Filipinos served as an active defacto, but unofficial U.S. ally."(source)


"In April of 1897 Roosevelt was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy as a reward for his staunch and tireless campaigning for the newly elected President, William McKinley. Theodore had been greatly affected the logic of Captain (later Rear Admiral) Alfred Thayer Mahan's "The Influence of Sea Power Upon History" since he had reviewed the book for the Atlantic Monthly in 1890. Now he could begin to put Mahan's beliefs into practice. Mahan had indicated that several key points concerning the Navy were revealed by studying the history of various countries and their Navies. First, that the United States ought to develop a strong Navy capable of extending its power across the ocean where it could defend U.S. interests at a safe distance from the home coastline. Neither Roosevelt or Mahan believed in the Isolationist view that the U.S. coastal defense was the sole use of the Navy. Also, if the Navy was going to be a world force, bases would have to be established at various locations, such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii."(source)

The once mighty and far-flung Spanish Empire evaporated with the wisps of smoke that still spiraled into the heavens on the morning of July 4th. The American ships were crowded with defeated Spanish sailors, many of them wounded. Indeed the victorious sailors were conspicuous by their reverent treatment of their captured foes. Later, upon his return home, Admiral Cervera wrote in his official report: 'The Americans clothed and fed our men--giving them anything they needed. The victors suppressed their shouts of joy in order not to increase the suffering of the defeated--and all vied to make our captivity as easy as possible.' One American newspaperman heralded the valiant last gasp of Cervera's squadron when he wrote: 'If Spain was served as well by her statesmen and public officials as she was by her sailors, she might still be a great country.'(source)

"Peace was arranged by the Treaty of Paris signed Dec. 10, 1898 (ratified by the U.S. Senate, Feb. 6, 1899). The Spanish Empire was practically dissolved. Cuba was freed, but under U.S. tutelage by terms of the Platt Amendment (see under Platt, Orville), with Spain assuming the Cuban debt. Puerto Rico and Guam were ceded to the United States as indemnity, and the Philippines were surrendered to the United States for a payment of $20 million. The United States emerged from the war with new international power. In both Latin America and East Asia it had established an imperial foothold. The war tied the United States more closely to the course of events in those areas."(source)

Book 1
Book 2